Sankhya – The dualistic school of thought

Six theistic schools are accepted in Sanātanadharma, namely Nyāya, Vaiśeṣika, Sāṅkhya, Yoga, Pūrvamīmāmsā (or Mīmāmsā) and Uttaramīmāmsā (or Vedānta). These are theistic schools not because they profess the existence of a God, but because they accept the authority of the Vedas as central to their philosophy1. Of these the epistemological school of Sāṅkhya and Yoga are sister schools, so much so, Yogadarśana is commonly referred to as ‘seśvara-sāṅkhya’, or the Sāṅkhya that professes a God. They are both in agreement with the dualistic nature of cosmology, and they are both in agreement with their theory of creation, existence and dissolution. 1 ‘vedaḥ asti iti āstikaḥ’ ज्ञानं निःश्रेयसार्थाय पुरुषस्यात्मदर्शनम्। यदाहुर्वर्णये तत्ते हृदयग्रन्थिभेदनम्॥ jñānaṁ niḥśreyasārthāya puruṣasyātmadarśanam| yadāhurvarṇaye tatte hṛdayagranthibhedanam|| I shall tell you of that knowledge of the self which is spoken of as redeeming of man, in order to cut asunder the knot of the heart (that prevents realization). - Śrīmadbhāgavata, 3.26.2 Sage Kapila is hailed as the progenitor of the dualistic school. The Śrīmadbhāgavata describes the philosophy in a nutshell, as the counsel of Sage Kapila to his mother, Devahūti, upon the renunciation of his father, Kardama. The ancient teaching gained traction as a philosophy with the systematization of its tenets by the philosopher, Īśvara Kṛṣṇa, somewhere in 3rd CE. Till date the Śāṅkhyakārika of Īśvara Kṛṣṇa remains a central to understanding the philosophy. The word Sāṅkhya has several meanings, amongst which ‘reasoning’ and ‘relating to number’ are of significance to us. Reasoning based on the number of principles in cosmology aimed at the emancipation of man, has earned the school the name, Sāṅkhya. Like every philosophical school of thought in Sanātanadharma, Sāṅkhya too is a systematic solution to the sufferings of the world. The school admonishes man to recognize the true nature of creation where from emanate man’s sufferings, and describes cosmology as a collection of 24 principles. It states that the knowledge of the unmanifest reality earned from understanding the principle of creation will end the suffering of man. The school argues further that the cessation of suffering is liberation. Sāṅkhya claims Prakṛti or creative force to be the fountainhead of creation, and unlike in other schools of thought, is not a creation of the Absolute. It states that Prakṛti is an admixture of the three attributes of Satva, Rajas and Tamas, and that when the three attributes are in a state of flux under the influence of Puruṣa, creation takes place. Strangely however, Prakṛti is not attributed with the knowledge to create or with the act of creation, and for that matter, neither is the Puruṣa. Essentially, all that we see stand created, lie within Prakṛti in subtle form and emerge during creation. The created world returns to rest in Prakṛti when dissolution commences. Thus, Prakṛti is the womb of creation, the materialistic cause for creation, but is herself not created. The three guṇas of Satva, Rajas and Tamas that rest in Prakṛti result in setting creation in motion, when in flux. From Prakṛti arises the first evolute of Mahat (Intellect), then Ahaṅkāra (the great I), the pañcatanmātras (five subtle elements), the pañcabhūtas (five gross elements), and the ten organs of sense and perception along with the mind. Together with Prakṛti, these constitute the 24 principles of Sāṅkhya, and are collectively called the vyakta or the manifest. Prakṛti although imperceptible, is categorized as manifest, for her presence is deducted from the evolutes that issue forth from her. Puruṣa alone is categorized as unmanifest or avyakta, and his presence is established by the argument that anything created must be created for the benefit of someone. Created souls achieve the cessation of earthly miseries by recognizing that there is a distinct unmanifest and eternal reality, and that manifest creation is misery and transient. The most characteristic feature of the Sāṅkhya school of thought is that the realization of the Puruṣa does not evolve into a classic merger with the Puruṣa as in Vedānta. Rather, the individual souls remain distinct, thereby making Sāṅkhya a dualistic school of philosophy. Puruṣa thus remains in essence, a symbol of the lack of misery that can be experienced, but not the goal to be achieved. Also, unlike in Vedānta, Puruṣa is not the doer, but is explained as the embodiment of consciousness in whose presence creation comes into existence. He is unmanifest, immutable, uncreated, beyond dissolution and devoid of agency. He is claimed to be the connoisseur of the play of creation, for whose benefit Prakṛti like an expert danseuse, displays it. It is stated that Prakṛti, even without any stake in it, exists as creation for the sole joy of the Puruṣa. नानाविधैरुपायैरुपकारिण्यनुपकारिणः पुंसः। गुणवत्यगुणस्य सतस्तस्यार्थमपार्थकञ्चरति॥ nānāvidhairupāyairupakāriṇyanupakāriṇaḥ puṁsaḥ| guṇavatyaguṇasya satastasyārthamapārthakañcarati|| The supremely helpful Prakṛti who is endowed with attributes, acts in myriad ways for the benefit of the Puruṣa who is pure consciousness, and is beyond attributes and assistance, with no desire for an end herself. - Sāṅkhyakārikā, 60 Unlike in the Vedānta school of philosophy, created souls are not a reflection of the Puruṣa and do not merge in him when creation ceases to exit, as has been mentioned earlier. In explaining the unique relationship that exists between the Puruṣa and Prakṛti, the analogy of a lame (man) being led by a blind (woman) is given. It is further stated that once the individual souls have attained realization and after the Puruṣa has rejoiced in the play of creation, Prakṛti withdraws into her unmanifest state. In other words, the evolutes are sucked back into the imperceptible Prakṛti, to remain there in a state of suspension until evolution takes place again. The cycle of quest for knowledge that can end misery, begins all over again and ends in cessation of creation. The three pramāṇas or testimonies accepted in this philosophical school of thought as the means to gain said knowledge, are pratyakṣa (direct perception), anumāna (inference) and Śabda (Vedic testimony). Essentially, the dualistic school, unlike its sister school of Yogadarśana, is predominantly an intellectual quest to understand the reality behind creation, and to end the misery it presents.

Sankhya – The dualistic school of thought

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